Frequently Asked Questions

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Mosquitoes breed in Vernal Pools. The fossil record tells us that mosquitoes have remained unchanged for 40 million years. This is an indication that the mosquito is near perfect in its design. However, they are pesky and unwanted by humans.

Public health entomologist Grayson Brown says mosquito larvae are very important in aquatic ecology. Many other insects and small fish feed on them and the loss of that food source would cause their numbers to decline as well. Anything that feeds on them, such as game fish, raptorial birds, etc. would in turn suffer too.

The Vernal Pool Society of Virginia is a growing effort to promote these habitats for study and protection, here in the Commonwealth of Virginia. They conduct research and have a vision to find all of the Vernal Pools in Virginia. Over 500 sites in half of Virginia's counties.

Rainfall may be inadequate in some years to recharge the groundwater, raise the water table, and form the temporary wetland. A pool may dry up before the larvae metamorphose into adults. Marbled Salamanders breed in the fall, and during especially cold winters the entire pool may freeze and kill all the larvae.

Besides serving as essential breeding habitat for certain species of wildlife, including salamanders and frogs (amphibians), the juvenile and adult amphibians associated with vernal pools provide an important food source for small carnivores as well as large game species. Many amphibian species are pool specific: they must return to the pond in which they were born to breed. The loss of vernal pools and the critical terrestrial habitat around them leads to local loss of amphibian species, a decrease in biodiversity, and a decline in food available for many other animals that live in these areas.

The spotted salamander and the marbled salamander are two salamanders found in our region that use vernal pools. They are woodland dwellers and often use the same place for breeding. They could lose their place for breeding and thereby not persist in an area.

Pines have long needle-like leaves that are held in bundles called "fascicles" with a sheath holding the needles together at the base. On loblolly pine, the needles are 10 to 17 cm long, and borne in fascicles of 3 or occasionally 2. They are dark yellowish green or sometimes grayish green, thick but flexible, and sometimes slightly twisted. The sheath is 1 to 1.5 cm long.

The large pine tree is 9’ feet, 9 inches in circumference and is perhaps the largest pine tree in WCP. This pine tree is infected with red heart fungus which infects many pines over 80 years of age. It is a Loblolly Pine.

The word "loblolly" originally meant a thick porridge or gruel served to English sailors. When Europeans first came to settle the southeastern United States, they used that word to describe some of the local swamps where they found mud with the same thick, gooey consistency. The term also came to be applied to some of the plants that commonly grew in these areas, which is how loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) and loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus) got their common names.

Experts estimate it is older than 300 years old. The only way to tell for sure is to core the tree. This old white oak has a rotten center that renders that type of measurement unreliable. 

These woody vines can grow over 100 feet in height and some varieties have been known to live over 400 years (in Europe). Not sure about this particular vine, but it could be a few hundred years old.?

White oaks can reach very large diameters. White oak trees have bark that is off-whitish to ashy gray in color. It can be very scaly and plate like. Older trees often have patches of nearly smooth bark. The leaves of the white oak are deeply lobed and the tips of the lobes will all be rounded. In fall, the leaves of an entire tree will be a scarlet or purple. White Oak acorns are about 3/4 inches long.

The tree is 15 feet 2 inches (182 inches) in circumference. Tree circumference is measured 4.5 feet above the ground on the uphill side of a tree.

The tidal marsh grass found closest to the water’s edge along the creeks bordering the park is Smooth Salt Marsh Cordgrass. It is shorter than some of the other grasses. 

Smooth Salt Marsh Cordgrass is very salt tolerant. The high tide brings in salty water that surrounds these plants near the shoreline.

• Marshes provide a buffer for storm surge and they mitigate wave action by stopping the forceful action of the moving water and slowing it down, causing less damage to the surrounding soil.
• Marshes are sometimes considered as sponges. Since they occupy low-lying areas, water from rains will accumulate in them, especially during large storm events. This helps to control strong water flows and prevent erosion.
• Marshes provide a habitat and nursery for many species of fish. Besides resident fish that are here year round, these creeks provide a safe and obscure place for developing juvenile fish.
• Because of the abundance of food and secluded areas that marshes provide, migrating water fowl come here to rest and feed on their journeys. Because of the large amount of marsh grasses, large amounts of oxygen are produced.
• Marshes provide a means of removing pollutants from the water such as herbicides, pesticides, and heavy metals. These bind to particles in the mud and when buried, they are removed from circulation.

Phragmites is one of the tallest grasses in the marsh and is typically farthest away from the creek waters. It has a flag-like inflorescence (flower head) that waves in the breeze. It is considered to considered to be an invasive plant.

This organism out-competes others in its area and therefore becomes the predominant organism. This is bad. This plant can reduce the plant diversity, which is needed for a healthy marsh ecosystem here. When there are a variety of plants in an area, there will be different seeds and different types of plant arrangements, which offer more options to those who depend on the resources in this marsh. The chemistry of the soil is enhanced when there are different kinds of plants contributing to its makeup when they die.

• Mammals. River otters, beaver, and muskrats may live entirely within a salt water marsh. Others such as deer, rabbits, mink, and raccoons utilize the resources, food, shelter, and water provided by the marsh.
• Crustaceans. Fiddler crabs, shrimp, crabs, barnacles, and snails inhabit salt water marshes.
• Mollusks that inhabit salt water marshes are oysters, clams, and mussels.
• Some nesting birds that live in the marsh are Virginia rails, red winged blackbirds, and wrens. Some other birds that feed in the marsh are herons, ospreys, eagles, and egrets.
• Waterfowl such as ducks, geese, and swans nest and feed in the marsh.

Big cord grass and phragmites are the tallest grasses found in the marsh and they are usually found farther from the creek shoreline. 

They are not as salt tolerant as the smooth cord grass. Phragmites in particular are also found in the fresh water marsh, since they are less salt tolerant.

A Cooter is a North American river turtle with a dull brown shell and typically having yellow stripes on the head. They usually live in fresh or brackish water and have flipper-like limbs for swimming. Preferred habitats include slow current, soft substrate, basking sites, and abundant aquatic vegetation.  

The availability of suitable basking sites is important for freshwater turtles. Basking in the sun elevates the turtle's body temperature, permitting digestion of food. It also provides vitamin D. Suitable basking sites must have exposure to sun, be accessible to turtles, and provide a safe site from predators and disturbance. Turtles are often seen basking on logs that are partially in water and partially on the shore. These slanted logs give turtles a choice to either climb completely out of the water or remain partially submerged.

Full Question: Dawn redwood is often confused with common bald cypress. They are both deciduous conifers, which mean they have needles, but shed them each fall.  Do you know how to tell the difference between a dawn redwood and a bald cypress?

Answer: Dawn redwood is often confused with common bald cypress. They are both deciduous conifers, which mean they have needles, but shed them each fall.

The needles on Dawn Redwood are opposite, meaning they are positioned directly across from each other on the stem. Bald Cypress needles are alternate, or staggered on the stem.

Oak trees produce thousands of acorns every fall. Acorns are rich in protein, carbs, fats, and minerals such at calcium and potassium. 

Pigs, bears, deer, and squirrels eat a lot of acorns.

In temperate climates like ours, this shedding is in the fall and new leaves emerge in the spring. In tropical climates shedding is in the dry season. 

Since there is a tremendous amount of water that is lost from a tree through its leaves due to the process of transpiration, water loss is reduced when leaves are cast off. This is done in the winter in VA when trees go into slow gear to survive the harsh winter conditions.

Incubation lasts 15 to 16 days, although incubation can be delayed due to weather. Hatching may be spread out over two or three days. Purple Martins fledge, or leave the nest, once they have acquired the feathers necessary for flight and independent activity. 

The young will fledge between 26-32 days after hatching and can receive care from both parents between one to two weeks after fledging.

Birds incubate their eggs by sitting on the eggs to keep them warm and bring them to hatching. Only the female can incubate the eggs because they have a brood patch, a featherless area rich in blood vessels that transfers heat to the eggs. Males may sit on the eggs for short periods of time, but they cannot incubate the eggs.

Purple Martins breed in North America and winter in South America. You will only find Purple Martins in the Americas. You will not find them in Europe, Asia, or Africa. 

Purple Martins breed in Virginia during the Spring and Summer. The Purple Martin spends its non-breeding season in one of eleven different South American countries: Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, Brazil, British Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana, with the majority of Purple Martins wintering over in Brazil.?

Traditionally Purple Martins nested in natural cavities such as old woodpecker holes, on rock ledges, or in dead trees. However, thousands of years ago, people began providing man-made housing for the made housing for the purple martins in the form of dried, hollow gourds.  Over time, the successful nesting of martins in these man-made homes, paired with the decline of natural cavities, led to a complete behavior shift for nesting within the eastern species. This tradition shift is rare. 

The others are Chimney Swifts, who nested only in huge, hollow trees and Barn Swallows, who nested in the mouths of caves or other rocky niches. Today all three of these species nest only on or in man-made structures.

The Purple Martin house at Windsor Castle Park was built and installed by Virginia Master Naturalist (VMN) volunteers in 2021. 

The Purple Martin house has 14 cavities. As of May 2022, it had not been used as a nesting site for Purple Martins. However, in May of 2021, Eastern Bluebirds built a nest in one of the cavities, so the VMN volunteers put up a Bluebird Nesting Box near the Purple Martin house, and the Bluebirds moved over to use it. In June 2022, several adult Purple Martins were seen flying around the house and one nest was discovered with 3 eggs. The eggs hatched around June 12. As of July 9, 2002, there were 3 healthy chicks about ready to fledge. Success!

Vocalizations are a major form of communication in animals and can range from alarm calls to courtship calls. Vocalizations develop as the martins grow. Bird songs are longer, more complex vocalizations that seem like an actual song to the human ear. Bird calls are shorter, usually one or two syllables in length. 

Songs are commonly used during courtship and mating, while calls are commonly used to show alarm or location. The Purple Martin Conservation Association has identified 7 distinct calls and 4 different songs that can be heard from Purple Martins. Some of the calls are known as “Choo”, “Zwrack”, “Zweet”, and “Hee-Hee”. The 4 Purple Martin songs are “Croak”, "Chortle”, “Subsongs”, and “Dawnsong”.

In warmer months there is a wide variety of animals seen in WCP – frogs, insects, birds, snakes, crabs, deer and others. By contrast, only birds or mammals like deer and squirrels are seen in the winter months. 

Since the deer and squirrels are mammals, they are warm blooded (endotherms) and generate enough internal heat to combat the colder outside temperatures. They also have insulating fat and hair to help keep them warm.

White-tailed Deer in WCP are often seen at the edges of the open spaces in the park.  These areas are good for them since they can find food easily here and escape quickly into the woods if needed. During late fall and winter, deer eat one particular thing for up to 75% of their diet.   

Deer rely heavily on acorns for food in the late fall and winter. They will travel to locate good acorn crops. Acorns are an excellent source of protein for the deer. With improved nutrition, more twin fawns are born in the spring.

The muskrat is a large resident of the WCP marshes and is named for its distinctive smell and its rat-like general appearance. They can be easily seen when they are swimming Little Creek on their way home or going to find some food.

Omnivores eat plants and animals. Muskrats eat all parts of the plants in the marsh as well as insects, frogs, fish and mussels to name a few.

Bats are the only mammal that can sustain flight. WCP is either home to or on the migratory route of some 12 species of bats. Some bats that commonly inhabit this area are the hoary bat, little brown bat, and evening bat. 

Bats, being entirely nocturnal, are only seen very late in the evening or at night when they are typically out looking for food. All bats in Virginia are insectivorous and are the number one predator of insects. They have been reported to eat from 6,000 to 8,000 mosquito sized insects each night.

Mammals favor eating acorns from the white oak tree family over those from red oaks, since they taste better and are more easily digested. However, acorns from red oaks last longer so they serve mammals and birds well into winter and spring. 

Since squirrels do not always recover the acorns that they bury, some acorns grow into trees, thanks to the squirrels’ efforts.

Porcelain Berry is a green vine that resembles native grape vines that are often seen in the forest. When the plant has berries, there is a good way to tell the difference between Porcelain Berry and native grape vines. 

The flowering top (inflorescence) and the berries on native grape vines droop downward, just like the grapes you are used to seeing in vineyards. The inflorescence and berries on Porcelain Berry are held upwards, even when the vine is dripping downward. Another difference is that the fruit of the Porcelain Berry has different shades of blue within the same cluster and is quite pretty. This may be the reason many people plant it.

Tree-of-heaven is a deciduous tree up to 80 feet tall with compound leaves that resemble native sumac and walnut species. Although once used as an ornamental, the flowers, leaves, and wood all give off an offensive odor likened to rotting peanuts. Do you know where it was from and how it got here?

It was deliberately introduced as an ornamental species from China.

Clean your boat. If you have used your boat in waters known to have invasive species like hydrilla or zebra mussel, clean it thoroughly before moving it to other water bodies. Invasive species are often hidden hitchhikers and are spread through lack of awareness. Clean your boots. If you have hiked in habitat with invasive species like garlic mustard, Japanese stiltgrass or wavyleaf grass, clean your boots of any seeds before leaving the site. While you're at it, check your dog for seeds, too. Humans and their animal allies frequently move invasive species seed to new locations and accidentally increase their range. Use native plants in gardens and landscapes. Planting natives will also enhance your backyard wildlife species like birds and butterflies.

Mechanical: Physically removing plants through pulling or digging up, suffocating with plastic sheeting, cutting, or mowing.

Chemical: Using herbicides to kill the plants and inhibit regrowth

Biological: Using plant diseases or insect predators that typically target the invasive species

Japanese Stilt Grass is an annual grass that grows vigorously in low-light habitats. It is from Asia and it was first introduced into the u.S. In Tennessee around 1919 and likely escaped as a result of its use as a packing material for porcelain. It is now found throughout Virginia where it invades a diverse range of habitats, from lawns to forested wetlands. 

Japanese stilt grass can carpet the ground layer and suppress other plants, including the seedlings of tree species, making it of concern to foresters. It appears that Japanese stilt grass alters soil pH, raising the acidity of soils and reducing the ability of other plants to grow where it is established. It produces numerous seed that are easily transported by animals and humans. Japanese stilt grass can establish well in a shaded forest under story, which can out-compete native flora, suppress tree seedlings, and inhibit forest regeneration.

They can cruise at some 20 to 30 miles per hour. In comparison, Bald Eagles can fly up to 99 miles per hour.

Full Question: In the past, herons and egrets were shot for their feathers, which were used as cooking utensils and to adorn hats and garments, and they also provided large, accessible targets. The slaughter of these birds went relatively unchecked until 1900 when the federal government passed the Lacey Act, which prohibits the foreign and interstate commercial trade of feathers. What challenges have Great Blue Herons faced in recent years?

Answer: Loss of nesting sites and deterioration of water quality and wetland habitat are issues of concern for heron survival. Poor water quality reduces the number of large fish and invertebrate species available in wetland areas. Toxic chemicals that enter the waterways from runoff and industrial discharges pose yet another threat. Although great blue herons currently appear to tolerate low levels of pollutants, these chemicals can move through the food chain, accumulate in the tissues of prey, and may eventually cause reproductive failure in the herons.

Full Question: Freshwater marshes are usually low-lying, open areas located near creeks, streams, rivers and lakes, where water flows into the marsh. Marshes are especially common at the mouths of rivers.  What is the water level in most fresh water marshes?

Answer: The water level in freshwater marshes usually ranges from 1 to 6 feet deep for most of the year.

Full Question: Land sinking is known as subsidence.  Declining ground water levels add to subsidence in some areas of eastern Virginia. What local industries might draw significant amounts of water from underground aquifers and affect subsidence?

Paper mills like that in Franklin, municipalities, industry, and large agriculture users.

Full Question: Many people think of global warming and climate change as synonyms, but scientists prefer to use “climate change” when describing the complex shifts now affecting our planet’s weather and climate systems. Rising seas is one of those climate change effects.  How could this affect the marshes at WCP?

Answer: As sea levels rise, higher tides could convert the fresh water marsh to a salt water marsh and the creek water levels could cause flooding in the low lying areas surrounding the park.

Anadromous fish hatch in freshwater, but migrate and live most of their lives in the ocean. They return upstream to freshwater rivers, streams, and marshes to spawn. Some examples in Virginia are shad, striped bass, and sturgeon. A catadromous fish does the opposite - lives in fresh water and enters salt water to spawn. Most of the eels are catadromous.

• Most species of hardwoods combine both seed and vegetative regeneration for reproducing. Most pines reproduce principally from seeds. 
• Hardwoods such as oak, maple, and yellow poplar commonly sprout from the stump after being cut or burned. These sprouts often form clumps. 
• Beech, Sweet Gum, and Black Locust commonly sprout along the roots (suckering). 
• Lightweight seeds, like those from Loblolly Pine, are most likely dispersed by wind. 
• Heavier seeds, like oak acorns and black walnuts are often dispersed by gravity, birds, and animals.

Just as forest trees help the creatures who live there live successfully, so forest creatures contribute to the life of the trees. Squirrels plant acorns which result in more oak trees. Flying insects, butterflies, and other pollinators promote new life through fertilization of tree flowers. Moles and earthworms help aerate the soil for increased nutrient and oxygen exposure to the roots. Decomposers enrich the soil with the return of nutrients to the soil.

A woodpecker will carve out a home in a cavity of a tree and use it as its home base. They will raise their young in the tree canopy and use it as a good platform for their offspring to learn to fly. A woodpecker will look for insects under or on the bark and use the tree as a perch to scan for insects flying by or on the ground. A woodpecker will often use a hollow tree as a drum to alert other woodpeckers in the area that this is its territory. If a woodpecker does not want to be seen, it will stay up in the tree canopy to hide itself. During storms, woodpeckers will hang on to tree limbs or seek safety in their nest cavities.

Wildlife: Trees provide homes, food, escape and hiding places from predators, and areas for reducing stress.Mankind: They provide many products like lumber for buildings, paper products, pharmaceuticals, fuel, food, rubber, musical instruments, etc. They provide many services such as removing carbon from the air and generating oxygen from photosynthesis, holding the soil in place, and providing beauty and areas for personal renewal.

The resulting parcels of forest experience a decline in biological diversity and place at risk those creatures needing large tracts of interior forests for successful breeding. Also, since some organisms need continuous tracts of forests in order to move safely to neighboring desirable resources, they are placed at risk when having to move through fragmented areas. The climate in a forest—its humidity and ability to retain water, the amount of wind penetrating it—can be influenced by fragmentation.?

Leaves that fall to the ground and accumulate there comprise the leaf litter. Leaf litter affects soil moisture and temperature by making it moister, warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer. 

In the fall, because of changes in the length of daylight and changes in temperature, the leaves stop their food-making process. The chlorophyll breaks down, the green color disappears, and the yellow to orange colors become visible and give the leaves part of their fall splendor. As the fall colors appear, other changes are taking place. At the point where the stem of the leaf is attached to the tree, a special layer of cells develops and gradually severs the tissues that support the leaf, making it easy for the leaves to be blown off by wind or fall from their own weight.

According to the dictionary, photosynthesis is the process by which green plants and certain other organisms transform light energy into chemical energy. During photosynthesis in green plants, light energy is captured and used to convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals into oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds. 

The word "chlorophyll" comes from the Greek words chloros, which means "green", and phyllon, which means "leaf". It is the chemical in tree and plant leaves that make them green.

Some trees can grow to a very large size, and some can live for thousands of years. But size is not always indicative of age. 

Genetics, climatic conditions, and disease.

Full Question: Both parents feed the baby bluebirds before they fledge.  The male parent feeds the chicks for a period after they fledge. Can you describe what it means to fledge and how long do bluebirds stay in the nest before fledging?

Answer: Bluebird chicks fledge 18 to 21 days after hatching. To fledge is to develop wing feathers that are large enough for flight. So, literally, the bluebird chicks leave the nest as soon as they are able to fly, and they do not return. The male parent feeds the fledglings for 2 to 3 weeks after they fledge.

Bluebirds lay one egg per day after the nest is complete.

Usually bluebirds build their nest in 3 to 4 days, but it may take as long as 12 days at times.

Full Question: There are 17 bluebird boxes at Windsor Castle Park.  In 2019, there were 28 nest attempts with a total of 131 eggs laid.  How many eggs on average were in each nest attempt? On average, how many nest attempts per box?

Answer: Average number of eggs per nest attempt = 131/28 = 4.7 Average number of nest attempts per bluebird box = 26 / 17 = 1.6

Female bluebirds brood or incubate the eggs for 12 to 14 days. The babies all hatch on the same day.

Full Question: From 1920-1970 there was a major decline in the bluebird population. The bluebird went from being as common as the robin, to being so rare that birders were sure of its inevitable extinction. There were many reasons for the decline.  Can you name some?

Answer: Loss of habitat, pesticide use, weather changes, snag (dead tree) removal, and an influx of house cats. Also, the introduction of the House Sparrow and the European Starling into America, both cavity nesters, who are both extremely competitive and aggressive.

Full Question:  A bluebird can spot caterpillars and insects in tall grass at the remarkable distance of over 50 yards. The bluebirds sit on an elevated perch while searching for insects.  When one is spotted, they drop to the ground to capture it with their bill. This sit-and-wait technique has a name.  Can you guess what it is?

Answer: It is called drop-hunting.

Northern Cardinal, Eastern bluebird, Carolina Wren, American Robin, Northern Mockingbird, Carolina Chickadee

• Provide hiding places in the tall reeds
• Have quiet waters and less wind to contend with
• Provide shelter for them away from the presence of people who can cause stress
• Provide food sources

Full Question: As you see birds in the park, note the kind of beak they have. By noting the shape of the beak of a bird, one can gain an idea of the type of food it eats. Can you propose the type of food that birds with the following beaks might eat?

Answer:

• Thick shorter beak like that in a Northern Cardinal (seeds, big seeds)
• Short slim beak like that in an Eastern Bluebird (good for catching insects)
• Long thin beak like that in a Hummingbird (used to obtain nectar deep in flowers)
• Long spear-like beak as in a Great Blue Heron (good for spearing fish, crabs or eels)
• Large hooked beaks as in an Bald Eagle (used to tear flesh, pull off feathers and fur)

Feathers are light and rigid, and therefore make it easier to fly. Feathers are water proof so that waterfowl do not become cold when they are in the water. In winter, down feathers help to trap the bird’s heat and combat cold temperatures. Feathers can be molted so that new replacements keep the bird in peak form. Feathers also are used to give characteristic colors which may help attract mates or identify individuals.

Full Question: Bald Eagles are powerful fliers - soaring, gliding, and flapping over long distances.  They have a spectacular courtship display where a male and female fly high into the sky, lock talons, and cartwheel downward together, breaking off at the last instant to avoid crashing to earth.  Besides the ultimate purpose to attract a receptive mate, there are other purposes behind this type of courtship behavior.  Can you think of what they could be?

Answer: Different courtship behaviors can reduce territorial aggression, letting two birds relax together to form a pair bond. Depending on the behavior, how birds react in courtship can also display strength, health, intelligence, and mating desirability. This allows different birds to choose the best partners and ensure viable, healthy offspring.

They lay 1 to 3 eggs, but most commonly, one pair of eggs each year.

Full Question: Loam is the kind of soil which is neither sand nor clay. As it approaches in nature to sand, it is called “sandy loam” or “light loam”.  As it approaches in nature to clay, it is called “clayey loam” or “heavy loam”.  What do you think loamy soil looks like?

Answer: Loamy soil is dark brown in color, not red or gray like clay, and not light brown like sand or silt.

Clays with this greenish-blue color are called 'gleyed' and are found in areas that have been saturated with water at some point in time. If there is a reddish tint to the clay, there was iron present. This connects the soils to its history of being a seafloor once upon a time.

Because there are three different soil particles, there are three different particle sizes allowing larger pores spaces for water, nutrients, and air in the soil for plants to use. In some types of loam, 40-60 % of the soil volume is made from the pores spaces.

It was named for Mr. Jefferson because of his interest in natural history. It also celebrates the Chesapeake Bay, the largest estuary in the world.

Full Question: European settlers found mounds of mollusk shells discarded by the Native Americans when they arrived. The large Chesapecten shells were used as bowls and scraping tools. The vast amount of oysters along the riverbed and banks were a nuisance to wooden ships of the settlers, but also vital to settlements in this area. Why is that?

Answer: The oysters were so plentiful in the area that they were a food source for the earliest settlers and may have made it possible for the settlers to survive and flourish here.

Full Question: The word fossil has a Latin origin, from fossilis, meaning “dug up” and that remains the key attribute of what we label as fossils.  Every fossil tells us something about the age of the rock it’s found in.  Index fossil tells us the most, because they are used to define periods of geologic time. A good index fossil is one with four characteristics.  What are those characteristics?

Answer: It is distinctive, widespread, abundant and limited in geologic time. Because most fossil-bearing rocks formed in the ocean, the major index fossils are marine organisms.

Full Question: Windsor Castle Park looks out onto the Pagan River that feeds into the James River. The James begins where the Jackson and Cowpasture rivers join in northern Botetourt County and flows 347 miles to reach the Chesapeake Bay. Out of all the many rivers found in Virginia, what makes the James River stand out AMONG the others?

Answer: Often called America's Founding River because of the early settlers, the James River is the largest and longest river in Virginia. A third of all Virginians depend on the river is some way.

Full Question: Though the elevation of the Park is less than 50 ft throughout, there are several rises and falls as you travel along the trails on the edges of Little Creek and Cypress Creeks. What created the various elevation changes?

Answer: Over the ancient history of the Park, sea level, as well as river and creek levels, have ebbed and flowed, eroding the surface of the landscape.

Full Question: The Pagan River is a 12.5-mile-long tributary of the James River that allowed Smithfield to become a thriving trading post for early settlers. The river's name is thought to be from the Algonquin word for “pecan” as pecan trees were plentiful along the banks.  The Pagan River was used to export what crop, prior to it shifting to Suffolk before 1921?

Answer: The banks of the Pagan River in Smithfield were once lined with peanut warehouses and peanuts were the cash crop of the town until a devastating fire in 1921. It wasn't until the late 1930s that Smithfield Foods started changing the economics of Smithfield.

Full Question: At certain times of the day, the tidal marshes of Little Creek and Cypress Creek drain, revealing the mudflats and fiddler crabs. A few hours later, water flows back into the creeks from the Pagan River, covering it all. This continues each day with water ebbing and flowing from the Pagan River. About how much time would you have to wait to witness a low tide followed by a high?

Answer: Coastal Virginia experiences two high and two low tides each day, each one about 6 hours and 25 minutes apart. As the tide flows into the James from the Chesapeake Bay, it enters the Pagan River and then into Little Creek and Cypress Creek.